The mere presence of a smartphone reduces basal attentional performance

In this experimental study, the assumption is tested whether the mere presence of the smartphone influences attention. College students perform an attention task in or out of smartphone presence. The experiment takes place in form of online video conferences. In addition to the assessment of attention, smartphone dependence is tested, for which the participants fill out a self-reporting questionnaire.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown measures, the methods as well as the target group had to be adapted, which is why the study was conducted via videoconferences with college students.

Participants

A total of 49 students volunteered to participate in this study. The age ranges from 20 to 34 years. The study takes place in a total of 12 online videoconferences, of which 1–5 people participate in one session at the same time. Data is collected over a three-week period in February and March 2021. The conditions under which the attention test is administered are manipulated by randomly assigning participants to one of the conditions (with or without smartphone). Participants in the smartphone condition are asked to place their smartphone on their desk during the test. The smartphone is switched off and the screen of the smartphone is placed covered on the table, so that the screen is not visible. The other condition is the without smartphone condition, in which the participants switch off their smartphone and place it outside the room. Seven subjects are excluded from the study. Reasons included completing the test incorrectly, not having test materials that work or participants indicating that they had already known the attention test in advance, which would lead to biased results. Thus, the final sample consists of 42 participants (45.2% females, Mage = 27.29, SDage = 2.87). 21 results are from participants in the without smartphone condition, whereas 21 results are from participants in the group who performed the attention test in the presence of a smartphone. Participants were informed about the relevant procedure of the study. Informed consent was obtained from all the participants. Subjects’ participation in the study was voluntary and confidential, and participants obtained no compensation. The study was approved by the audit committee of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of Paderborn University according to the guidelines of the DGPS (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie—German Society for Psychology). All methods used in the experiments performed during the present study were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations of the research ethics committee of Paderborn University.

Measures

Attention

Attention is assessed by using the d2-R concentration and attention test (d2-R). The d2-R is a strikethrough test in which objects and characters must be searched for that are located between similar objects and characters. The task is to mark the correct ones among many characters. The characters are the letters ‘d’ or ‘p’ and one to four marks, which can be below or above the letter. Participants had to cross out the ds with two marks. The d2-R test consists of a sheet on which are 789 characters. The total time to complete the test is 4 min and 40 s. The test consists of a total of 14 lines and participants have 20 s of processing time per line. If a participant completes the test without errors, 359 characters would be crossed out.

The d2-R can be seen as a test consisting of tasks that are cognitively not very demanding but can be completed quickly. Differences in the ability to concentrate become apparent by the speed and accuracy with which large numbers of such non-demanding tasks can be completed continuously. The d2-R was chosen as the test for this study because it is one of the most widely used methods for measuring attention in German-speaking countries. It is a validated instrument and proven as reliable and dependable.

The d2-R provides information about the processing speed, accuracy and attention performance of the test subjects. The attention performance score, referred to as the AP score, indicates a person's ability to focus their attention. The AP score is a measure of processing speed that was adjusted for made errors. In addition to the attention performance score, the speed score, called PTO score (processed target objects) and the E% score are assessed. The standardized E% score indicates the accuracy of a test person in processing the d2-R.

The speed, the accuracy as well as the attention performance are recorded by the number of processed target objects (i.e. crossed out target objects) as well as the errors made, i.e. crossing out distractors or not crossing out target objects.

Smartphone dependence

Smartphone dependence is assessed by using the German short version of the smartphone addiction scale (d-KV-SSS). This scale was selected to prioritize instruments that have been validated and proven as a reliable and dependable instrument in a German speaking region. Montag (2018) adapted the original scale (short version of the smartphone addiction scale) by Kwon et al. (2015) via a traditional translation and back-translation procedure and developed the German short version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (d-KV-SSS). Modifications of the d-KV-SSS were made in the present study to increase comprehensibility, as well as to make it more personal to the participants (see supplementary information for the questionnaire). For example, educational language words as well as sentence constructions were simplified and adapted.

The d-KV-SSS questionnaire can reveal a possible smartphone dependence as well as tendencies towards a smartphone dependence. The items used in the questionnaire can be answered using a six-point Likert scale. Participants can give answers ranging from "I do not agree at all" (1) to "I fully agree" (6). These responses to the 10 items are summed to obtain an overall score of smartphone dependence. The total score thus ranges from 10 to 60 points. Higher scores are associated with a stronger tendency towards smartphone dependence. Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.78.

Procedure

The experiment is conducted in form of digital video conferences via a video platform. In advance, participants receive detailed instructions on how to prepare for the test, which include a detailed description and a sketch of how they should position themselves and organize their surroundings during the test (see supplementary information for the handed-out instructions and the sketch). Participants are advised to sit at an empty desk with only a pen, their smartphone and the envelope sent to them, which contains the test materials. In addition, participants are told to eliminate all possible distractions. Furthermore, participants receive a note to also inform possible family members, roommates, etc. that they must not be disturbed during the experiment. It is emphasized as particularly important that all functions and notifications of the participants’ own laptop or computer, except for the function of the video call, are disabled. Participants receive a detailed list of what to switch off. This is to ensure that the laptop or computer serves only as a camera and audio source and is not a distraction.

Besides the instructions, participants receive the d2-R test and the questionnaire d-KV-SSS by mail. Whether the instructions are implemented can be observed during the video call by the supervisor. If the instructions are not implemented correctly or sufficiently, participants will be informed by the supervisor. This ensures that the instructions are implemented correctly.

The experiment is conducted in a session over a period of approximately 20 min. Since the study takes place via an online videoconference, participants are in their usual environment and a representative situation is given. The situation created in the experiment, in which the participants are at their desk, working on a task and having their smartphone next to them, resembles an everyday life situation and can be transferred to it.

Before the testing, precise instructions are prepared. To keep confounding variables as low as possible, a video is sent to the participants in advance in which the experimenter gives instructions for the attention test (d2-R). Participants are advised to not watch the video until the beginning of the videoconference. The instructions in the video include a reminder of the instructions that should be carried out before the experiment and a brief description of the course of the test.

In the further course of the conduction of the d2-R, the instructions are read aloud by the experimenter. The experimenter adheres to the exact, prepared wording to create the most equal conditions possible for all participants. When the conduction of the d2-R begins, the instructions given in the test manual of the d2-R are used.

Besides the advantage of the video, that the instructions are the same for all participants, there is another positive aspect. The participants are instructed to download the video to their smartphone in advance. The video, which the subjects watch on their smartphones during the testing, ensures that all subjects own a smartphone. The subjects can be instructed immediately after watching the video to place their smartphone in a specific location without receiving a hint about the experimental manipulations as well as the hypotheses to conduct a blinded experiment. Participants are given the information that the general development of college students’ attention is examined.

After the participants have watched the video, they are advised where to place their smartphone. Depending on the group they are assigned to, the smartphone is either placed on the table or taken to another room. Subsequently, the participants create an individual personal code to ensure that completed documents can be assigned to each other, but at the same time the results remain anonymous. Next, the d2-R is conducted. During the test conduction, after every 20 s, the experimenter gives the cue "Stop. Next line." until after 4 min and 40 s the cue "Stop. Put the pen aside." is given and the test is completed. After completing the d2-R, participants answer the d-KV-SSS to gather information about a possible tendency towards smartphone addiction.