A Review of Self-regulated Learning: Six Models and Four Directions for Research

Criteria for Inclusion

Only models with a consolidated theoretical and empirical background were considered for inclusion. The criteria to select a model were that (a) it should be published in JCR journals or SRL handbooks, thus peer-reviewed; (b) it should be written in English; and (c) it should have a minimum number of cites. Models published earlier than 2010 should have at least 500 references. If the model was published after 2010, it should at least have 20 cites per year.

Selection Process

As a first step, it was analyzed which of the models included in the 2001 review were still actively used. The models by Boekaerts, Winne, and Zimmerman were included as they are widely used and the authors are active SRL scholars who published in the latest handbook (2011). However, the two other models from the 2001 review–Pintrich and Borkowski–needed further consideration. Pintrich was, unfortunately, not able to develop his work further (Limón et al., 2004), but his model and the questionnaire based on it, the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Pintrich et al., 1993b), are still widely used in research (e.g., Moos and Ringdal, 2012). Borkowski et al.’s (2000) model, which has a strong basis in metacognition, has had less of a presence in the development of the SRL field in recent years, and the main author has transferred his research focus to “exceptionality” (e.g., learning disabilities). Therefore, it was excluded.

The second decision was to consider new models. Two actions were taken. First, a literature search was performed in PsycINFO using the term “self-regulated learning model” from 2001 onward. Second, I asked eight SRL colleagues to identify new models. Five new models were identified. Efklides’ (2011) model explores how emotion and motivation interact with metacognition, and offers a different interpretation of students’ top–down/bottom–up processing in comparison to Boekaerts’, thereby broadening our understanding of SRL. Hadwin et al.’s (2011, in press) model addresses the social aspects of the regulation of learning, which has been an emerging line of research within the SRL field (Panadero and Järvelä, 2015). Additionally, three others were considered: (a) Wolters (2003), which has a strong focus on motivation regulation; (b) Azevedo et al. (2004), which builds upon the work of Winne and colleagues (e.g., Azevedo and Cromley, 2004, p. 525, fourth paragraph) and describes a micro-level analysis of SRL; and (c) Schmitz and Wiese (2006), which takes Zimmerman’s model as a foundation and proposes some tweaks. While these three models are relevant and the scholars have conducted important empirical research on SRL, it was decided not to include them for two reasons. First, Wolters has a strong focus on motivation and does not cover the whole spectrum of SRL components. Second, Azevedo et al. (2004) and Schmitz and Wiese (2006) have considerable similarities with two other models that were already included (Winne and Zimmerman, respectively).

In sum, the models from Zimmerman, Boekaerts, Winne, and Pintrich, will be analyzed with a new lens based on the research of recent years. Additionally, two new models–those of Efklides and of Hadwin, Järvelä, and Miller–will be compared to those more established models. Next, the models will be discussed in chronological order.